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Encyclopedia of Geology
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2021
Publisher:
Elsevier
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ISBN (Print):
9780081029091
Publication date (Print):
2021
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f7c160ec-a894-4957-9b30-f0f460d931e5
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Book chapters
pp. iv
Copyright
pp. ix
Permission Acknowledgement
pp. v
Editorial Board
pp. vii
Introduction to the Second Edition
pp. 1
Introduction and Overview
pp. 1
History of Geology
pp. 1
Fossilization
pp. 1
Igneous Processes
pp. 1
The Andes
pp. 1
Nucleosynthesis: The Where and How
pp. 12
Taphonomy
pp. 13
Radiometric Dating by Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Lu-Hf, Re-Os, and Pb-Pb
pp. 16
Argentina
pp. 16
Classification of Igneous Rocks
pp. 20
Controls on Element Partitioning Behavior
pp. 23
Precambrian
pp. 26
Radiometric Dating (U-Th-Pb)
pp. 27
Brazil and the Guianas
pp. 33
Subduction Zone Magmas
pp. 37
Planetary Geology
pp. 44
Thermodynamic Modeling of Silicate Systems
pp. 47
Gulf of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean
pp. 50
K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar Dating Methods
pp. 52
Siderophile Elements: Systematics and Significance
pp. 52
Intraplate Volcanism
pp. 52
Mercury
pp. 55
Cenozoic
pp. 60
Large Igneous Provinces
pp. 62
Paleogene
pp. 64
Venus
pp. 66
(U-Th)/He Chronology
pp. 67
Chalcophile Elements: Systematics and Relevance
pp. 68
Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico
pp. 69
Ultramafic Rocks
pp. 69
Neogene
pp. 76
Komatiite
pp. 76
An Essential Quaternary Clock for Earth System Sciences: An Overview of the Theory and Applications of U and Th Decay Series Isotopes for the Dating of Young Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
pp. 76
Quaternary
pp. 80
Northern Appalachians
pp. 81
Halogen Abundances and Isotopes
pp. 84
Basalt and Related Rocks
pp. 86
The Moon
pp. 89
Biostratigraphy
pp. 93
Northern Cordillera: Canada and Alaska
pp. 94
Mars
pp. 96
Chronostratigraphy
pp. 99
Cumulates and Layered Igneous Rocks
pp. 100
Traditional Stable Isotope Geochemistry
pp. 101
Dating by Cosmogenic Nuclides
pp. 107
Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
pp. 107
Precambrian Continental Nucleus
pp. 108
Jupiter
pp. 113
Boninites
pp. 114
Non-Traditional Stable Isotope Geochemistry
pp. 116
Fission Track Dating
pp. 116
Chondrichthyes
pp. 119
Southern-Central Appalachians-Ouachitas Orogen
pp. 121
Osteichthyes or Bony Fishes
pp. 123
Saturn System
pp. 125
Long-Lived Radionuclides
pp. 130
Anorthosites
pp. 132
Thermochronology
pp. 133
Uranus and Neptune
pp. 134
U and Th Decay Series Isotopes
pp. 138
Tetrapod Origins
pp. 140
Magnetostratigraphic Dating
pp. 141
Asteroids
pp. 145
Felsic Igneous Rocks
pp. 147
Amniotes
pp. 150
Ceres and Pluto
pp. 150
Composition of the Earth's Core
pp. 153
Electron Spin Resonance Dating
pp. 153
Paleozoic Nonamniote Tetrapods
pp. 157
Central Cordillera
pp. 160
Comets
pp. 164
Luminescence Dating
pp. 164
Composition of Earth's Mantle
pp. 165
Lepidosauromorphs
pp. 170
Granite and Related Rocks
pp. 173
Tectonics of the Continental Interior in the United States
pp. 174
Meteorites
pp. 175
Early Archosauromorphs: The Crocodile and Dinosaur Precursors
pp. 175
Amino Acid Racemization Dating
pp. 178
Composition of the Earth's Crust
pp. 184
Pegmatites
pp. 185
Dust From the Solar System and Beyond
pp. 186
Dinosaur Origins
pp. 187
The Grenvillian Orogeny and Rodinia
pp. 187
Incremental Change Methods
pp. 187
Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere
pp. 194
Dinosaurs
pp. 194
In-Situ Planetary Spectroscopy
pp. 196
Obsidian
pp. 198
K, Th, U, and Radiogenic Heat Production
pp. 202
Central-Sub-Sahara and Congo Craton
pp. 206
The Hadean Eon: Hot, Cold, or Just Right?
pp. 206
Permo-Jurassic Cynodonts: The Early Road to Mammalness
pp. 207
The Geochemistry of Icy Moons
pp. 209
Adakites
pp. 209
Exploration Geochemistry
pp. 211
Recognizing Archean Traces of Life: Difficulties and Perspectives
pp. 215
Potassic Alkaline Rocks: Leucitites, Lamproites, and Kimberlites
pp. 217
Composition of Titan's Atmosphere
pp. 219
Exploration Geophysics
pp. 220
Zircons: Age, Thermobarometry, and Source Inheritance
pp. 220
The Cape Fold Belt and Karoo Basin of South Africa
pp. 227
Mesozoic Mammals and Early Mammalian Evolution
pp. 231
The Chemistry of Extrasolar Planets
pp. 233
Insights Into Subduction Zone Dynamics
pp. 235
Urban Geochemistry
pp. 237
Marsupial Mammals
pp. 240
Carbonatites
pp. 242
Nucleosynthetic Heterogeneities in Meteorites
pp. 244
North African Phanerozoic
pp. 247
Bird Origins
pp. 248
(Paleo)Climatology Geochemical Tracers
pp. 251
Coastal Mapping and Monitoring
pp. 256
Crinoidea
pp. 258
Volcanoes
pp. 258
Geoneutrinos: Seeing the Earth With Particle Physics
pp. 258
Prospects for Life Beyond Earth
pp. 259
Pan-African Orogeny
pp. 263
Definition and Classification
pp. 266
Insects
pp. 267
Geochemical Mapping
pp. 269
Quartz
pp. 270
Core Mantle Interactions
pp. 271
Feldspars
pp. 271
Recipe for Rifting: Flavors of East Africa
pp. 273
Brachiopoda
pp. 277
Pyroclastic Rocks
pp. 278
Anthropogenic Influences on Ocean chemistry
pp. 281
GIS for Earth Sciences
pp. 284
East European Craton
pp. 284
Corals and Other Cnidaria
pp. 287
Pyroxenes
pp. 288
Introduction to Paleoclimates
pp. 294
Geologic Field Methods and Mapping
pp. 297
Amphiboles
pp. 299
Approaches to Paleoclimate Reconstruction
pp. 299
Gastropods
pp. 301
Magmatic Volatiles
pp. 301
Olivines
pp. 301
Geological Remote Sensing
pp. 302
Eastern Europe: The Timanian and Uralian Orogens
pp. 309
Paleoclimate Modelling
pp. 310
Feldspathoids
pp. 311
Trilobites
pp. 311
Caledonides of Scandinavia, Greenland and Svalbard
pp. 313
Igneous Intrusions: Sills, Dykes and Plutons
pp. 313
Zeolites
pp. 315
Geological Maps and their Interpretation
pp. 318
Timescales of Climate Change
pp. 323
Applied Geochemistry
pp. 326
Micas
pp. 327
Marine Geology
pp. 327
Echinoids
pp. 328
Terrestrial Biological Proxies of Climate Change
pp. 328
The Tectonic Pattern of Britain and Ireland
pp. 330
Radiogenic Isotopes and Mantle Evolution
pp. 334
Glauconites
pp. 334
Graptolites
pp. 338
Variscan Orogeny
pp. 341
Clay Minerals
pp. 342
Engineering Geology
pp. 345
Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
pp. 348
Eolian Sediments
pp. 349
Bivalves
pp. 350
Permian to Recent Evolution
pp. 350
Garnets
pp. 354
Types of Metamorphism
pp. 358
Zircon
pp. 359
Archaeocyatha
pp. 363
Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology
pp. 366
Controlling Factors of Metamorphism
pp. 368
Other Silicates: The Al2SiO5 Polymorphs, Cordierite, Staurolite, Epidote, Chlorite and Serpentine
pp. 370
Soils and Paleosols
pp. 372
Carpathians
pp. 375
Textures and Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
pp. 375
Stromatolites
pp. 377
Geotechnical Engineering
pp. 382
Geology of the Balkan Peninsula
pp. 382
Carbonates (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)
pp. 385
Permafrost and Related Landforms
pp. 389
Calcareous Algae (Rhodophyta and Chlorophyta)
pp. 389
Disequilibrium Microstructures of Metamorphic Rocks
pp. 393
Geohydrology: Global Hydrological Cycle
pp. 395
Sulfides
pp. 397
Types of Metamorphic Reactions
pp. 399
Groundwater Hydrogeology
pp. 407
Fusulinids
pp. 408
Mediterranean Tectonics
pp. 408
Geohydrology: Groundwater
pp. 412
Sea-Level Change in Geological Time
pp. 412
Metamorphic Reaction Kinetics
pp. 413
Sulphates of Ca, Ba and Sr
pp. 416
Geohydrology: Hydrogeochemistry
pp. 420
The Alps
pp. 420
Radiolaria (Polycystinea)
pp. 422
Phosphates
pp. 423
Geothermobarometry
pp. 426
Geohydrology: Isotope Hydrogeology
pp. 428
Oxides
pp. 433
Phase Diagram Calculations Using Internally-Consistent Thermodynamic Datasets (THERMOCALC)
pp. 435
Orbital Forcing (Astronomical Theory of Paleoclimates)
pp. 435
Conodonts
pp. 436
Arabia-Eurasia Collision
pp. 439
Metamorphic Grades, Zones, Facies and Facies Series
pp. 442
Geohydrology: Watershed Hydrology
pp. 442
Hydroxides
pp. 444
History of Greenhouse Gas Warming: CO2
pp. 445
Metamorphism of Pelitic (Al-Rich) Rocks
pp. 446
Cyanobacteria
pp. 451
Russia: East of the Urals
pp. 452
Native Elements
pp. 455
Diamond
pp. 456
Methane in Earth History
pp. 457
Geohydrology: Hydrological Modeling
pp. 457
Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks
pp. 461
Paleozoic Plants
pp. 463
Quaternary Climates
pp. 464
Regional Geology of Central Asia
pp. 465
Metamorphism of Quartzofeldspathic Rocks
pp. 472
Indian Subcontinent
pp. 473
Platinum-Group Minerals
pp. 475
Pre-Quaternary Glaciations
pp. 476
Gymnosperms
pp. 477
Hydrogeophysics
pp. 479
Metamorphism of Dolomites and Limestones
pp. 484
Arsenates
pp. 486
India: Asia Collision and Tibet
pp. 486
Miocene Climates
pp. 489
Borates
pp. 492
Migmatites
pp. 494
China and Mongolia—Precambrian-Paleozoic
pp. 495
Caves and Karst
pp. 497
Cretaceous Climate
pp. 501
Angiosperms
pp. 502
Composition Effects on Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages
pp. 504
Jurassic Climates
pp. 505
Chromates
pp. 507
Molybdates
pp. 509
China | Mongolia: Mesozoic-Cenozoic
pp. 509
Nitrates
pp. 510
The Geological Consequences of Global Climate Change
pp. 511
Tungstates
pp. 511
Ichnofacies
pp. 513
Very-low-grade Metamorphism
pp. 513
Vanadates
pp. 514
Triassic Climates
pp. 517
Biominerals
pp. 520
Ichnofabric
pp. 520
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
pp. 522
UHT Metamorphism
pp. 523
Gemstones and Gem Minerals
pp. 525
Permian Climates
pp. 526
Japan and the Korean Peninsula
pp. 532
Coprolites
pp. 532
Electron Probe Microanalysis in Mineralogy
pp. 534
Late Paleozoic Glaciation
pp. 538
Geoarchaeology
pp. 544
South-East Asia
pp. 545
Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures (MISS)
pp. 546
Automated Mineralogy by SEM-EDS
pp. 546
Neoproterozoic Glaciation—Snowball Earth Hypothesis
pp. 553
Ultrahigh Pressure Metamorphism
pp. 554
Geobiology and Geomicrobiology
pp. 554
Fluid Inclusions
pp. 555
From Stardust to First Cells—The Origin of Life
pp. 557
Proterozoic Climates
pp. 561
Eclogites in Different Tectonic Settings
pp. 561
Ediacaran Biota
pp. 568
Mineral Chemical Age Dating
pp. 569
Geoheritage
pp. 569
Dating Metamorphism
pp. 571
Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere
pp. 572
Geology of New Guinea
pp. 575
Earthquake Seismology
pp. 576
Burgess Shale Fauna
pp. 579
Teaching the Earth: Pathways and Careers in Geoscience Education
pp. 583
Cambrian Explosion
pp. 584
Australia: Phanerozoic
pp. 584
Metamorphic Zircon
pp. 585
Geological Museums and Collection Curation
pp. 585
Climate Change and Extinction Events
pp. 587
Seismic Tomography of the Earth's Mantle
pp. 596
Volcanism and Mass Extinction
pp. 597
P-T-t Paths
pp. 603
Australia: Proterozoic
pp. 603
Big 5 Mass Extinctions
pp. 607
The Origins, Current State, and Future of Geological Surveys and Societies
pp. 607
The Resources Cycle: Key Sustainability Issues for the Mining of Metals and Minerals
pp. 610
Local Earthquake Tomography
pp. 612
Metamorphism in Subduction Zones
pp. 617
Late Ordovician Extinctions
pp. 617
Australia: Tasman Orogenic Belt
pp. 621
Custodianship of Global Mineral Resources
pp. 622
Seismic Anisotropy
pp. 623
Metamorphism Through Time
pp. 627
The Geology of Wine, Spirits and Beer
pp. 628
Late Devonian Extinctions
pp. 631
Zealandia (Including New Zealand and New Caledonia)
pp. 633
Quantification of Mineral Resources
pp. 635
Principles of Stratigraphy
pp. 636
Paleoseismology, Archeoseismology and Paleotsunami Studies
pp. 637
Mid-Permian (End-Guadalupian) Extinctions
pp. 642
Antarctica
pp. 643
Plate Tectonics and Metallogeny
pp. 644
Geomythology
pp. 645
The End-Permian Mass Extinction
pp. 648
Depositional Systems and Facies
pp. 648
Military Geoscience
pp. 653
End-Triassic Extinctions
pp. 655
Mineralogy and Classification
pp. 656
Exploration Seismology
pp. 659
The Galápagos Islands
pp. 660
Environmental Geology
pp. 663
Lode Gold Deposits in Time and Space
pp. 664
Geomagnetism
pp. 665
End-Cretaceous Extinctions
pp. 666
Diagenesis
pp. 669
Environmental Forensics
pp. 669
Ichnology
pp. 674
North-East Atlantic Islands: The Macaronesian Archipelagos
pp. 675
Aeromagnetism
pp. 679
Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions
pp. 680
Rare Earth Elements
pp. 681
Weathering
pp. 684
Medical Geology
pp. 689
Magnetostratigraphy
pp. 690
Soil, Soil Processes, and Paleosols
pp. 694
Bauxites
pp. 698
Magnetotellurics: An Overview
pp. 699
The Great American Biotic Interchange
pp. 700
Indian Ocean Islands
pp. 705
Earth Structure and Origins
pp. 706
Gravity
pp. 708
Landslides and Related Sediments
pp. 708
Geothermal Resources
pp. 716
Crust
pp. 719
Geodesy
pp. 723
Nuclear Geology
pp. 724
Mantle
pp. 724
Geo-Tectonics, Geology, and Geo-Resources of the Southwest Pacific
pp. 729
Fluvial Geomorphology
pp. 732
The Moho Discontinuity
pp. 736
Remote Sensing in Geology
pp. 742
Geology of the Hawaiian Islands
pp. 744
Plate Tectonics
pp. 745
Distributive Fluvial Systems: Fluvial and Alluvial Fans
pp. 745
Geology of Coal
pp. 746
Borehole Geophysics
pp. 758
Scotia Sea Region
pp. 759
Faults
pp. 759
Deposition From Suspension
pp. 761
Near-Surface Geophysics
pp. 762
Petroleum Geoscience
pp. 767
Gondwanaland and Gondwana
pp. 770
Convergent Plate Boundaries and Accretionary Wedges
pp. 771
Subaqueous and Subaerial Depositional Bedforms
pp. 774
Monitoring Volcanic Deformation
pp. 783
Unconventional Petroleum Resources
pp. 787
Sedimentary Structures
pp. 788
Earthquakes
pp. 803
Folding
pp. 805
Geophysical Site Characterization
pp. 808
Origin of Layered Mafic Intrusions and their Mineral Deposits
pp. 809
Eolian Processes and Sediments
pp. 815
Geophysical Hazards
pp. 818
Fractures
pp. 823
Mineralization in Layered Mafic-Ultramafic Intrusions
pp. 826
Fresh Outlook on Numerical Methods for Geodynamics. Part 1: Introduction and Modeling
pp. 830
Mid-Ocean Ridges
pp. 830
Glacial Processes and Sediments
pp. 840
Rare Metal Granites and Pegmatites
pp. 841
Fresh Outlook on Numerical Methods for Geodynamics. Part 2: Big Data, HPC, Education
pp. 845
Ocean Trenches
pp. 847
Porphyry and Epithermal Mineral Deposits
pp. 855
Propagating Rifts and Microplates at Mid-Ocean Ridges
pp. 856
Analog Models for Earth Sciences
pp. 857
Periglacial Processes and Deposits
pp. 867
VMS and SEDEX Deposits
pp. 868
Physics-Based Numerical Modeling of Geological Processes
pp. 868
Exhumation of Ultrahigh-Pressure Metamorphic Terranes
pp. 876
Lacustrine Processes and Sediments
pp. 877
Placer Deposits and Processes
pp. 879
The Plate Theory for Volcanism
pp. 884
Field-Scale Rock Physics for Near-Surface Applications
pp. 891
The Supercontinent Cycle
pp. 894
Coastal Geology: Coastal Landforms and Processes
pp. 899
Stratabound, Sediment-Hosted Cu-Co Deposits (with special reference to the Central African Copperbelt)
pp. 900
Subsurface Geostatistical Modeling
pp. 903
Numerical Modeling of Tectonic Processes
pp. 906
Beaches and Coasts
pp. 913
Continental Transform Faults
pp. 914
Ironstones and Iron Formations
pp. 919
Deltas
pp. 922
Sedimentary Phosphate Deposits
pp. 930
Oceanic Transform Faults
pp. 931
Bedded Manganese Deposits
pp. 932
Storms and Storm Deposits
pp. 942
Carbonate Shorelines and Shelves
pp. 945
Evaporite Deposits
pp. 947
Triple Junctions
pp. 955
Reefs
pp. 957
Ridge Subduction and Slab Windows
pp. 965
Deep-Water Processes and Deposits
pp. 968
New Concepts in Ophiolites, Oceanic Lithosphere and Podiform Chromites
pp. 978
The Oceans and Massive Sulfide Deposits
pp. 993
Ocean Floor Manganese Deposits
pp. 994
Subduction Initiation
pp. 1002
Space and its Mineral Resources
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