The number of tree species on Earth – ScienceOpen
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      The number of tree species on Earth

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      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
      National Academy of Sciences
      biodiversity, forests, hyperdominance, rarity, richness

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          Significance

          Tree diversity is fundamental for forest ecosystem stability and services. However, because of limited available data, estimates of tree diversity at large geographic domains still rely heavily on published lists of species descriptions that are geographically uneven in coverage. These limitations have precluded efforts to generate a global perspective. Here, based on a ground-sourced global database, we estimate the number of tree species at biome, continental, and global scales. We estimated a global tree richness (≈73,300) that is ≈14% higher than numbers known today, with most undiscovered species being rare, continentally endemic, and tropical or subtropical. These results highlight the vulnerability of global tree species diversity to anthropogenic changes.

          Abstract

          One of the most fundamental questions in ecology is how many species inhabit the Earth. However, due to massive logistical and financial challenges and taxonomic difficulties connected to the species concept definition, the global numbers of species, including those of important and well-studied life forms such as trees, still remain largely unknown. Here, based on global ground-sourced data, we estimate the total tree species richness at global, continental, and biome levels. Our results indicate that there are ∼73,000 tree species globally, among which ∼9,000 tree species are yet to be discovered. Roughly 40% of undiscovered tree species are in South America. Moreover, almost one-third of all tree species to be discovered may be rare, with very low populations and limited spatial distribution (likely in remote tropical lowlands and mountains). These findings highlight the vulnerability of global forest biodiversity to anthropogenic changes in land use and climate, which disproportionately threaten rare species and thus, global tree richness.

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          Most cited references68

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          Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity.

          The most unique feature of Earth is the existence of life, and the most extraordinary feature of life is its diversity. Approximately 9 million types of plants, animals, protists and fungi inhabit the Earth. So, too, do 7 billion people. Two decades ago, at the first Earth Summit, the vast majority of the world's nations declared that human actions were dismantling the Earth's ecosystems, eliminating genes, species and biological traits at an alarming rate. This observation led to the question of how such loss of biological diversity will alter the functioning of ecosystems and their ability to provide society with the goods and services needed to prosper.
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            VennDiagram: a package for the generation of highly-customizable Venn and Euler diagrams in R

            Background Visualization of orthogonal (disjoint) or overlapping datasets is a common task in bioinformatics. Few tools exist to automate the generation of extensively-customizable, high-resolution Venn and Euler diagrams in the R statistical environment. To fill this gap we introduce VennDiagram, an R package that enables the automated generation of highly-customizable, high-resolution Venn diagrams with up to four sets and Euler diagrams with up to three sets. Results The VennDiagram package offers the user the ability to customize essentially all aspects of the generated diagrams, including font sizes, label styles and locations, and the overall rotation of the diagram. We have implemented scaled Venn and Euler diagrams, which increase graphical accuracy and visual appeal. Diagrams are generated as high-definition TIFF files, simplifying the process of creating publication-quality figures and easing integration with established analysis pipelines. Conclusions The VennDiagram package allows the creation of high quality Venn and Euler diagrams in the R statistical environment.
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              Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services.

              Concern is growing about the consequences of biodiversity loss for ecosystem functioning, for the provision of ecosystem services, and for human well being. Experimental evidence for a relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem process rates is compelling, but the issue remains contentious. Here, we present the first rigorous quantitative assessment of this relationship through meta-analysis of experimental work spanning 50 years to June 2004. We analysed 446 measures of biodiversity effects (252 in grasslands), 319 of which involved primary producer manipulations or measurements. Our analyses show that: biodiversity effects are weaker if biodiversity manipulations are less well controlled; effects of biodiversity change on processes are weaker at the ecosystem compared with the community level and are negative at the population level; productivity-related effects decline with increasing number of trophic links between those elements manipulated and those measured; biodiversity effects on stability measures ('insurance' effects) are not stronger than biodiversity effects on performance measures. For those ecosystem services which could be assessed here, there is clear evidence that biodiversity has positive effects on most. Whilst such patterns should be further confirmed, a precautionary approach to biodiversity management would seem prudent in the meantime.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
                Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
                pnas
                PNAS
                Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
                National Academy of Sciences
                0027-8424
                1091-6490
                31 January 2022
                8 February 2022
                31 January 2022
                : 119
                : 6
                : e2115329119
                Affiliations
                [1] aDepartment of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University , West Lafayette, IN 47907;
                [2] bDepartment of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna , Bologna 40126, Italy;
                [3] cBiological Institute, Tomsk State University , Tomsk 634050, Russia;
                [4] dDepartment of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota , St. Paul, MN 55108;
                [5] eInstitute for Global Change Biology and School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI 48109;
                [6] fHawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University , Penrith 2753, Australia;
                [7] gForestry Department, FAO , Rome 00153, Italy;
                [8] hInstitute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich 8092 Zurich, Switzerland;
                [9] iCentre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University , Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa;
                [10] jMathematical Biology Unit, African Institute for Mathematical Sciences , Muizenberg 7945, South Africa;
                [11] kDepartment of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida 25198 Lleida, Spain;
                [12] lJoint Research Unit CTFC–AGROTECNIO–CERCA 25280 Solsona, Spain;
                [13] mTERRA Teaching and Research Centre, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege , Gembloux 5030, Belgium;
                [14] nForest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University and Research , Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands;
                [15] oCenter for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), Department of Biology, Aarhus University DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark;
                [16] pSection for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Aarhus University DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark;
                [17] qAgroParisTech, INRAE, Silva, Université de Lorraine 5400 Nancy, France;
                [18] rDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut , Mansfield, CT 06268;
                [19] sDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona , Tucson, AZ 85721;
                [20] tDepartment of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison , Madison, WI 53704;
                [21] uStatistics Program, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia;
                [22] vDepartment of Statistics, University of Wisconsin–Madison , Madison, WI 53706;
                [23] wInstitute of Botany, CAS, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China;
                [24] xDepartment of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign , IL 61801;
                [25] yDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, MN 55108;
                [26] zDepartment of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine 33100, Italy;
                [27] aaFaculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano-Bozen , Bolzano 39100, Italy;
                [28] bbSpatial Ecology and Conservation Lab, Department of Tourism, Hospitality, and Events Management, University of Florida , Gainesville, FL 32611;
                [29] ccEscuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Nacional (Colombia) Abierta y a Distancia , Bogotá 2102, Colombia;
                [30] ddMuseo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Casilla 2489, Santa Cruz, Bolivia;
                [31] eeEuropean Commission, Joint Research Centre 21027 Ispra, Italy;
                [32] ffCompensation International Progress S. A.–Ciprogress Greenlife , Bogotá, Colombia;
                [33] ggUNELLEZ-Guanare, Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT) , Mesa de Cavacas, estado Portuguesa 3323, Venezuela;
                [34] hhDepartment of Geomatics, Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Stary , Raszyn 05-090, Poland;
                [35] iiInternational Center for Tropical Botany, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University , Miami, FL 33133;
                [36] jjForest Science Laboratory, Multidisciplinary Center, Universidade Federal do Acre , Cruzeiro do Sul 69920-900, Brazil;
                [37] kkProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. , Washington, DC 20001;
                [38] llDepartment of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University , Durham, NC 27708-06080;
                [39] mmAMAP, Université de Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD , Montpellier 34090, France;
                [40] nnInstitut Agronomique néo-Calédonien, Equipe Sol & Végétation 98800 Noumea, New Caledonia;
                [41] ooInstitute of Tropical Forest Conservation, Mbarara University of Science and Technology , Kabale, Uganda;
                [42] ppIntegrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies, and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control, University Stefan cel Mare of Suceava 720229 Suceava, Romania;
                [43] qqDepartment of Forest Sciences, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo , Piracicaba 13418-900, Brazil;
                [44] rrDepartment of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester M1 5GD, United Kingdom;
                [45] ssSpatial Ecology and Conservation Lab, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida , Gainesville, FL 32611;
                [46] ttDepartment of Agriculture, Alimentation, Environment and Forestry, Università degli Studi di Firenze , Firenze 50144, Italy;
                [47] uuAmazonia Green Landscape Protection and Governance Programme, SOS Amazônia , Rio Branco 69905-082, Brazil;
                [48] vvLaboratory of Botany and Plant Ecology, Center of Biological and Nature Sciences, Federal University of Acre , Rio Branco 69920-900, Brazil;
                [49] wwDepartment of Spatial Regulation, GIS and Forest Policy, Institute of Forestry 11030 Belgrade, Serbia;
                [50] xxUniversidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco , Cusco 08000, Peru;
                [51] yyFaculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University , Thunder Bay, ON, Canada P7B 5E1;
                [52] zzInstitute of Forest Ecosystem Research 254 01 Jilove u Prahy, Czech Republic;
                [53] aaaGlobal Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic;
                [54] bbbNicholas School of the Environment, Duke University , Durham, NC 27708;
                [55] cccDepartment of Plant Sciences in the Conservation Research Institute, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom;
                [56] dddQuebec Center for Biodiversity Sciences, Centre for Sustainability Research, CSFG and Biology Department, Concordia University , Montreal, ON QC H3G 1M8, Canada;
                [57] eeeLaboratory for Geoinformation Science and Remote Sensing, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University and Research , Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands;
                [58] fffWorld Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi 00100, Kenya;
                [59] gggEcology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California , Santa Barbara, CA 93106;
                [60] hhhInstituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana , Iquitos, Peru;
                [61] iiiCirad, UMREcoFoG (Agroparistech, CNRS, INRAE, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane) 97 310 Kourou, French Guiana;
                [62] jjjDepartment of Plant Science, Faculty of Science, University of Buea , Buea, Cameroon;
                [63] kkkSilviculture Rearch Institute, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences , Hanoi, Vietnam;
                [64] lllInstitute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Science 25243 Průhonice, Czech Republic;
                [65] mmmFaculty of Science, University of South Bohemia 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic;
                [66] nnnAMAP, IRD, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, Université de Montpellier , Montpellier Cedex 5 F-34398, France;
                [67] oooSchool of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London , London E1 4NS, United Kingdom;
                [68] pppCollege of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter , Exeter EX4 4PY, United Kingdom;
                [69] qqqDepartment of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences , Uppsala 750 07, Sweden;
                [70] rrrRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh , Edinburgh EH3 5LR, United Kingdom;
                [71] sssDepartment of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth 95440 Bayreuth, Germany;
                [72] tttBiometris & Forest and Nature Policy Group, Wageningen University and Research , Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands;
                [73] uuuCIRAD, UPR Forêts et Sociétés , Yamoussoukro, Côte d’Ivoire;
                [74] vvvForêts et Sociétés, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD , Montpellier 34000, France;
                [75] wwwInstitut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny , Yamoussoukro, Côte d’Ivoire;
                [76] xxxLaboratory for Geoinformation Science and Remote Sensing, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University and Research , Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands;
                [77] yyySection 1.4 Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics, Helmholtz GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences , Telegrafenberg, Potsdam 14473, Germany;
                [78] zzzInstitut Agronomique néo-Calédonien, Equipe Sol & Végétation 98800, New Caledonia;
                [79] aaaaDepartment of Biology, University of Hawai'i at Hilo , Hilo, HI 96720;
                [80] bbbbInstitute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences , Kornik 62-035, Poland;
                [81] ccccBiałowieża Geobotanical Station, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw , Warsaw 17-230, Poland;
                [82] ddddFaculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling , Stirling FK9 4LA, United Kingdom;
                [83] eeeeDepartment of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen 1165, Denmark;
                [84] ffffSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol , Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom;
                [85] ggggInstitute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences , Tartu 51006, Estonia;
                [86] hhhhCenter for Forest Ecology and Productivity of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia;
                [87] iiiiIntegrative Research Center, The Field Museum , Chicago, IL 60605;
                [88] jjjjHerbarium Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences/Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Cibinong Science Center , Cibinong 16912 Indonesia;
                [89] kkkkDepartment of Physical and Environmental Sciences, Colorado Mesa University , Grand Junction, CO 81501-3122;
                [90] llllDepartment of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen 1017, Denmark;
                [91] mmmmUniSA STEM and Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia 5001 Adelaide, Australia;
                [92] nnnnDepartment of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University) , Sagar 470003, India;
                [93] ooooDepartment of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University , Madhya Pradesh Sagar-470003, India;
                [94] ppppMuseo de Historia natural Noel Kempff Mercado , Santa Cruz, Bolivia;
                [95] qqqqDepartment of Agriculture, Forestry and Bioresources, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, South Korea;
                [96] rrrrInterdisciplinary Program in Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, South Korea;
                [97] ssssNational Center for AgroMeteorology , Seoul 08826, South Korea;
                [98] ttttInstitute of Future Environmental and Forest Resources, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, South Korea;
                [99] uuuuDepartment of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand , Ranchi 835205, Jharkhand, India;
                [100] vvvvDepartment of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University) , Sagar 470003, India;
                [101] wwwwLaboratoire Évolution et Diversité Biologique, UMR 5174 (CNRS/IRD/UPS) 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France;
                [102] xxxxTartu Observatory, University of Tartu , Tartu 61602, Estonia;
                [103] yyyySchool of Geography, University of Leeds , Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom;
                [104] zzzzDepartment of Geography, University College London , London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
                [105] aaaaaDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona , Tucson, AZ 85721;
                [106] bbbbbEnvironmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3QY, United Kingdom;
                [107] cccccForest Research Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast , Sippy Downs QLD 4556, Australia;
                [108] dddddDepartment of Environment and Geography, University of York YO10 5NG, United Kingdom;
                [109] eeeeeAll-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry 141200 Pushkino, Moscow region, Russia;
                [110] fffffUniversidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco , Cusco, Peru;
                [111] gggggFSBI “ROSLESINFORG,” 141208 Ivanteevka, Moscow region, Russia;
                [112] hhhhhEscuela de Ingeniería Forestal, Insttuto Tecnologico de Costa Rica , Cartago 30101, Costa Rica;
                [113] iiiiiUniversidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco , Cusco, Peru;
                [114] jjjjjDépartement des sciences biologiques, Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec à Montreal , Montreal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8;
                [115] kkkkkDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University , Puducherry 605 014, India;
                [116] lllllInstituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria–Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral–CONICET , Río Gallegos CP 9400, Argentina;
                [117] mmmmmCirad, UMREcoFoG (Agroparistech, CNRS, INRAE, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane) 97 310 Kourou, French Guiana;
                [118] nnnnnUrban Ecosystem Research, School of Social Science, Western Sydney University , Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia;
                [119] oooooGroupement d’Intérêt Public (GIP) Ecofor , Paris 75116, France;
                [120] pppppLaboratory of Tropical Dendrology and Forestry, Training Center in Agroforestry Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia , Ilheus 45613-204, Brazil;
                [121] qqqqqSchool of Life Sciences, Chair of Forest Growth and Yield Science, Technical University of Munich 85354 Freising, Germany;
                [122] rrrrrInstituto de Investigaciones paa el Desarrollo Forestal, Universidad de Los Andes , Mérida 5101, Venezuela;
                [123] sssssEscuela Ambiental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia , Medellin, Colombia;
                [124] tttttAgriculture Food Environment Centre (C3A), University of Trento , San Michele all’Adige 38122, Italy;
                [125] uuuuuResearch and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach , San Michele all’Adige 38010, Italy;
                [126] vvvvvHerbario Selva Central (HOXA), Jardín Botánico de Missouri , Oxapampa, Pasco Mz.E-6, Peru;
                [127] wwwwwLaboratory of Tropical Dendrology and Forestry, Training Center in Agroforestry Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia , Ilheus 45613-204, Brazil;
                [128] xxxxxDepartment of Biology, University of Florence 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy;
                [129] yyyyyMUSE-Museo delle Scienze 38122 Trento, Italy;
                [130] zzzzzInfoFlora, Conservatoire et Jardin Botanique de Genève 1292 Chambesy, Switzerland;
                [131] aaaaaaDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand , Ranchi 835205, India;
                [132] bbbbbbCentro de Modelacion y Monitoreo de Ecosistemas, Universidad Mayor, Universidad de La Frontera , Santiago, Chile;
                [133] ccccccVicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad de La Frontera , Temuco 4811230, Chile;
                [134] ddddddDepartamento de Silvicultura y Cons. de la Naturaleza, Universidad de Chile , Santiago 8820808, Chile;
                [135] eeeeeeSukachev Institute of Forest of the SB Russian Academy of Sciences 660036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia;
                [136] ffffffInternational Institute for Applied Systems Analysis , Laxenburg A-2361, Austria;
                [137] ggggggFaculty of Biology, Geobotany, University of Freiburg 79104 Freiburg, Germany;
                [138] hhhhhhNational Forest Centre 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia;
                [139] iiiiiiLaboratory of Botany and Plant Ecology, Center of Biological and Nature Sciences, Federal University of Acre , Rio Branco 69920-900, Brazil;
                [140] jjjjjjEnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam BE1410 Gadong, Brunei;
                [141] kkkkkkPlant Systematic and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Higher Teachers' Training College, University of Yaounde I , Yaounde, Cameroon;
                [142] llllllCB, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte , Natal 59072-970, Brazil;
                [143] mmmmmmDepartment of Geomatics, Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Stary , Raszyn 05-090, Poland;
                [144] nnnnnnFaculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague 16521 Prague, Czech Republic;
                [145] ooooooDepartment of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaounde I , Yaounde, Cameroon;
                [146] ppppppBioversity International, IITA Regional Office in Cameroon , Yaounde, Cameroon;
                [147] qqqqqqDepartment of Biology and Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida , Gainesville, FL 32611;
                [148] rrrrrrSchool of Science and Engineering, James Cook University , Cairns QLD 4878, Australia;
                [149] ssssssInstituto de Investigaciones paa el Desarrollo Forestal, Universidad de Los Andes , Mérida 5101, Venezuela;
                [150] ttttttSystematic Botany and Functional Biodiversity, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
                [151] uuuuuuCentre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, UTAD , Quinta de Prados 5000-801 Vila Real, Viseu, Portugal;
                [152] vvvvvvDepartment of Ecology and Sustainable Agriculture, Agricultural High School, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu 3500-606 Viseu, Portugal;
                [153] wwwwwwDepartment of Forest Engineering, Universidade Regional de Blumenau , Blumenau-Santa Catarina 89030, Brazil;
                [154] xxxxxxDepartment of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California , Berkeley, CA 94720;
                [155] yyyyyyUniversidad Autónoma del Beni , Riberalta, Beni 2W3Q+VHJ, Bolivia;
                [156] zzzzzzKey Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hainan University , Haikou 570228, China;
                [157] aaaaaaaDepartment of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences , Umeå 750 07, Sweden;
                [158] bbbbbbbMinistere des Eaux, des Forets, de la Mer et de l’Environnement chargé du Plan Climat et Objectifs de Development Durable, Estuaire Libreville , Gabon;
                [159] cccccccInstitut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale, Libreville, Gabon;
                [160] dddddddFaculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling FK9 4LA, United Kingdom;
                [161] eeeeeeeManaaki Whenua–Landcare Research , Lincoln 7640, New Zealand;
                [162] fffffffState Forests–Coordination Centre for Environmental Projects , Warsaw 02-362, Poland;
                [163] gggggggKey Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hainan University , Haikou 570228, China;
                [164] hhhhhhhDépartement FOREN, Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny , Yamoussoukro BP 1093, Côte d’Ivoire
                Author notes
                1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: preich@ 123456umn.edu or  albeca.liang@ 123456gmail.com .

                Contributed by Peter B. Reich; received September 19, 2021; accepted December 7, 2021; reviewed by Robert Colwell and Fangliang He

                Author contributions: J.L. developed the original idea, coordinated tree-level data compilation with the GFBI and TREECHANGE teams, and provided facility support. R.C.G. conceptualized the study, performed the data and statistical analysis, implemented the computations, and made the figures and tables. R.C.G., J.L., and P.B.R made major contributions to data interpretation and writing the manuscript, with R.C.G. taking the lead role throughout, J.L. co-developing the initial draft version, and P.B.R. co-developing the original and final submitted versions. J.G.P.G, T.C., J-F. B., C.H. and P.B.R. contributed to the analytical methods, interpretation of the results, and the writing. A.M. and R.A.G. contributed to the R coding, computations, data analysis, and mapping. S.d-M. and A.B. supported and supervised R coding, data analysis and mapping. J.L., J.G.P.G., T.C., S.d.-M., G.-J.N., J.-C.S., J.M.S.-D., C.M., B.E., J.F., G.A., A.M.A.Z., E.A.-D., A.A.-M., V.A., G.A.A., R. Balazy, C.B., J.G.B., M.L.B., P.B., R. Bitariho, J.B., F. Bongers, O.B., P.H.S.B., F.Q.B., E.N.B., F. Bussotti, W.C.d.S., R.G.C., G.Č., V.C.M., H.Y.H.C., E.C., C.J.C., D.A.C., S.D., M.D., J.D.A.P., G.D., M.N.K.D., T.V.D., J.D., I.Đ.Đ., J.E., T.M.F., T.R.F., J.K.F., D.J.H., A.H., G.H., B.H., M.H., T.I., A.M.J., B.J., K.J.J., V.K.J., T.J., A. Kangur, V.N.K., K.K., D.K.K., S.K.-R., G.K., M.L.K., P.K.K., T.J.K., H.S.K., H.K., Amit Kumar, Ashwani Kumar, D.L., N. Labrière, M.L., S.L.L., N. Lukina, B.S.M., Y.M., A.R.M., O.V.M., A.L.M.M., P.V.O., E.O.-M., N.C.P.C., A.P., M.P., N. Parthasarathy, P.L.P., P.P., S.P., O.L.P., N. Picard, D.P., L.P., J.R.P., H.P., H.R.-A., Z.R.C., M.R., R.D.P.R.G., S.G.R., F.R., E.R., P.S., C.S.-E., D.S., M.S.-L., V.Š., M. Silveira, F.S., B.S., A.F.S., K.J.S., M. Svoboda, H.T., N.T., J.T., E.T., A.T.-L., F.v.d.P., R.V., H.V., A.C.V., E.V., V.A.V., H.-F.W., B.W., L.J.T.W., S.K.W., T.Z.-N., L.Z., Z.-X.Z., and I.C.Z.-B. contributed data; R.C.G., P.B.R., J.L., J.G.P.G., T.C., C.H., A.M., J.-F.B., S.d.-M., G.-J.N., J.-C.S., J.M.S.-D., C.M., B.E., M.K., J.Z., J.F., D.F.J., B.P., A.B., R.A.G., G.A., A.M.A.Z., E.A.-D., A.A.-M., V.A., G.A.A., R. Balazy, C.B., J.G.B., M.L.B., P.B., R. Bitariho, J.B., F. Bongers, O.B., P.H.S.B., F.Q.B., E.N.B., F. Bussotti, W.C.d.S., R.G.C., G.Č., V.C.M., H.Y.H.C., E.C., C.J.C., D.A.C., S.D., M.D., L.E.D., J.D.A.P., G.D., M.N.K.D., T.V.D., J.D., I.Đ.Đ., J.E., T.M.F., T.R.F., J.K.F., D.J.H., A.H., G.H., B.H., M.H., T.I., A.M.J., B.J., K.J.J., V.K.J., T.J., A. Kangur, V.N.K., K.K., D.K.K., S.K.-R., G.K., M.L.K., P.K.K., T.J.K., H.S.K., H.K., Amit Kumar, Ashwani Kumar, D.L., N. Labrière, M.L., S.L.L., N. Lukina, B.S.M., Y.M., A.R.M., O.V.M., A.L.M.M., P.V.O., E.O.-M., N.C.P.C., A.P., M.P., N. Parthasarathy, P.L.P., P.P., S.P., O.L.P., N. Picard, D.P., L.P., J.R.P., H.P., H.R.-A., Z.R.C., M.R., R.D.P.R.G., S.G.R., F.R., E.R., P.S., C.S.-E., D.S., M.S.-L., V.Š., M. Silveira, F.S., B.S., A.F.S., K.J.S., M. Svoboda, H.T., N.T., J.T., E.T., A.T.-L., F.v.d.P., R.V., H.V., A.C.V., E.V., V.A.V., H.-F.W., B.W., L.J.T.W., S.K.W., T.Z.-N., L.Z., Z.-X.Z., and I.C.Z.-B. wrote the paper.

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                Article
                202115329
                10.1073/pnas.2115329119
                8833151
                35101981
                88cd879d-2f71-4f2c-9af4-f0f3e457d789
                Copyright © 2022 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.

                This open access article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).

                History
                : 07 December 2021
                Page count
                Pages: 11
                Categories
                414
                Biological Sciences
                Ecology
                From the Cover

                biodiversity,forests,hyperdominance,rarity,richness
                biodiversity, forests, hyperdominance, rarity, richness

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