Later prehistory of the Philippines: colonial images and archaeology

The colonial experience of the Philippine Islands as a Spanish and, more recently, an American dependency, has shaped Western peceptions of the people and history of the archipelago. Little has been known about the islands' precolonial past, but archaeologists are now beginning to investigate it, as in the project on the island of Negros described here.

T he Philippine Islands experi enced more than 350 years of Spanish and American colonial rule, and they lack prehistoric monuments and preserved in digenous writings of uncontested authen ticity.1It is therefore not surprising that foreign images shape our views of later Philippine prehistory (defined broadly as from the tenth to the sixteenth century AD).
Most colonial images probably in some way misrepresent pre-Hispanic (and later) Filipino societies.Misrepresentations range from inaccuracies that stem from early cul tural encounters, such as the earliest Span ish explorers' description ofVisayans -the inhabitants of the islands between Luzon and Mindanao (Fig. 1) -as pintados (painted men; Fig. 2) when actually they were tatooed, to more recent racist views legiti mizing colonial power, such as the Span ish and later American portrayals of Filipinos as "savages" before they came under the civilizing influence of Europe ans. 2 There has long been debate over the nature and history of pre-Hispanic Philip pine society, its social forms and political institutions,3 but without archaeological research, such as the project described here, the debate is unlikely to be resolved.Before describing the project, it is helpful to set it in the larger context of late pre historic Philippine societies.pearls, gold ore and cotton.Philippine chiefs sought goods such as glazed ceramics (porcelains).glass beads, silk, lacquerware and iron: items that appear to have been valued as status symbols by chiefs, were essential in sociopolitical negotiations, and enhanced a chief's ability to maintain and increase political authority.
This picture oflate prehistoric and early historic Philippine chiefdoms draws on foreign accounts, primarily Chinese and early Spanish records, and shows that they can be important sources of information, but they can also constrain our under standing of the indigenous societies.Until recently, there has been little reliable archaeological evidence with which to assess the nature of, and transformations in, the social, political, economic and ideological attributes of pre-Hispanic Philippine societies.4Therefore, in order to investigate one example of a late pre-historic chiefdom more directly, in 1987 I initiated an archaeological project in the Dumaguete-Bacong region of southeast ern Negros Island (Fig. 3) under the auspices of the Archaeology Division of the Philippine National Museum and in collaboration with anthropologists from Silliman University in Dumaguete City.

Archaeological investigations in southeastern Negros Island
Before 1987, only one site (Magsuhot,5 which is also referred to as Bacong or Solamillo; Fig. 3) had been systematically excavated in this area.In addition to yield ing evidence of late-thirteenth to mid fifteenth-century habitation, the excava tion uncovered seven burials in pottery jars dated to the final two centuries BC and the first century AD.They contained human skeletal remains, glass beads and bracelets, iron implements, human and animal figu rines, animal remains, and decorated earth enware vessels, including one vessel in human form, one with attached animal fig ures, and one with human female figures sitting around the opening of the jar.This excavation provided evidence of a longer sequence of prehistoric occupation than was (and still is) currently documented for the Bais region to the north (Fig. 3). the only part of the island where a regional archae ological project had been undertaken prior to the initiation of my project.
The main aim of the Dumaguete-Bacong project is to investigate long-term socio political and economic transformations in The late prehistoric period ended with the establishment of colonial rule in 1565although this had been preceded by several Spanish expeditions, beginning with Mag ellan's voyage of 1521 -and it witnessed a growing involvement of the archipelago's societies in international foreign trade (Fig. 1).In the early first millennium AD, the South China Sea became an arena for intensive international trade systems that involved China and Southeast Asian socie ties.At least one Philippine society, which was known to the Chinese as Ma-i, on the island of Mindoro, participated directly in trade with China (Fig. 1) by the late tenth century.This was followed by increasing numbers of Philippine chiefs actively com peting for access to, and control over, for eign trade relations.Chinese and Southeast Asian traders sought various marine, fo rest and agricultural products, textiles, and mineral resources of the archipelago, such as beeswax, resins, woods, tortoise shell, Figure 1 Southeast Asia, showing the location of the Philippine Archipelago, selected ancient settlements and late prehistoric tra de routes.
Fi gure 2 Two tatooed Vi sayans fr om the Philippine Islands, described by early Spanish explorers as "painted men ".
outheastern Negros, the nature of the fo rmer having been an issue of debate from the beginning of Spanish colonization.1 The research focuses on the sociopolitical nature of late prehistoric lowland societies, on their political economy, and on the role of gender in prestige.However, a necessary and significant part of the research has been, and continues to be, documenting the archaeological record ofthe area and estab lishing a regional chronology.Another important aim of the project is to produce an archaeologically informed critique of the reconstructions, based primarily on European views, of pre-Hispanic and early historic Philippine societies.
The fieldwork undertaken so far has included systematic survey of an area of c. 30km2 (Fig. 4) that involved recording and collecting for analysis from 72 sites herds of earthenware pottery and Asian tradewares, as well as stone artefacts and other artefactual remains; test excavations at two sites (Marino and Pis-an); more extensive excavations at two sites (Unto and Yap, described below); and an inves tigation ofthe spatial extent of the Yap set tlement by means of a series of boreholes (using a hand auger) to ascertain the spatial extent of the Yap settlement.

Excavations in the area of the Dumaguete chiefdom
Excavations at Yap, which is located within Dumaguete City along the banks of the Banica river and the edge of the coastal plain, uncovered evidence of what is cur rently interpreted as the political centre of a late prehistoric chiefdom.Three periods of occupation have been uncovered, dating to the eleventh, twelfth to fourteenth, and fif teenth to sixteenth centuries AD.Parts of res idential structures were uncovered in the eleventh-and fifteenth-sixteenth-century occupation layers, and, on the basis of their size, one from each period appears to have been an elite residence of people of high status.The earliest structures are associated with an extensive, thick midden deposit that contains artefacts such as beads, plain and decorated earthenware sherds, and iron fragments, some of which may well be prestige items -an interpretation that accords with evidence from other late pre historic political centres.Residences were also associated with areas where iron and earthenware pottery was produced.Similar artefactual remains are fo und in the later periods of occupation, with the addition of glazed Asian tradewares and foreign earth enwares; and pottery and iron production continued.The archaeological record at Yap is sim ilar to that of Tanjay, farther north on the east coast of Negros, and Cebu City on the northeast coast of the neighbouring island of Cebu (Fig. 3), two other centres of late prehistoric Visayan chiefdoms, which sug gests a fairly long history for the material expression of the status of chiefs.The chiefs at Yap also participated, either directly or indirectly, in long-distance trade, as is indicated by the presence of Asian tradewares.However, continuity in the material record does not mean that sociopolitical or economic structures were static, and further research is needed to improve understanding of the late prehis toric sociopolitical dynamics of Visayan chiefdoms.Excavations at the Unto site (c. 3 km west of Yap) uncovered evidence of three peri ods of occupation.The earliest period dates to the late first millennium BC, making Unto one of the few sites in the archipelago with occupation radiocarbon-dated to this period.It has yielded remains of a residen tial structure associated with plain and decorated earthenware sherds (including several sherds with impressions of rice husks), stone artefacts and shell fragments.The second period of occupation dates to the fifteenth century AD.The remains from this period cover at least 1 ha and consist of five structures, sherds of plain and deco rated earthenwares and Asian tradeware, stone artefacts and animal remains, and they may represent a settlement occupied by less elite individuals within the Dum aguete political hierarchy.The third period of occupation is post-fifteenth century (probably early historic) in date, and has yielded remains of one structure associated with earthenware sherds, fragments of tobacco pipes, metal fragments , iron slag, stone artefacts, shell, fragments ofbone and teeth, and lumps of burnt clay.Further investigation of the Unto site, particularly in its regional context, is expected to pro vide important evidence for understanding social transformations from the late first millennium BC to the sixteenth century AD.

Craft goods in the Dumaguete economy
We are also investigating the organization and dynamics of the political economy of late prehistoric Dumaguete society.Analy sis of early accounts suggests that Philip pine chiefs supported themselves through the mobilization of agricultural and other tribute goods, labour services provided by commoners, payments for the services they rendered, and maritime expeditions for long-distance trade, raids and warfare.Chiefs distributed to both elite and non elite individuals some of the local and for eign goods acquired in such expeditions, and they appear to have sponsored some part-time and full-time craft specialists such as goldsmiths, ironsmiths and other unspecified smiths, skilled carpenters and textile producers.They also had some con trol over food and other resources valuable for exchange and trade, such as gold ore, raw cotton, rice and beeswax.However, because the Spanish were primarily inter ested in trade with China and mainland Southeast Asia, there is little information in their accounts on the production and distribution of utilitarian goods within Visayan societies.
Analysis of the Dumaguete-Bacong archaeological finds continues, with a view, for example, to distinguishing between local and foreign prestige goods and inferring how they were distributed.So far, the results suggest that chiefs controlled the distribution of foreign goods, specifi cally glazed Asian tradewares and deco rated earthenwares from the Thai state of

ARCHAEOLOGY INTERNATIONAL
Ayutthia (AD 1350-1 767; Fig. 1).The latter have been recovered only from the chiefly centre at Yap, as have the earliest glazed tradewares of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.The glazed tradewares continued to be present at Yap in succeeding centu ries, but they also appear at 12 other sites in the region between the fourteenth and the seventeenth centuries, which implies that they were distributed from the centre of the chiefdom at Yap.Similarly, there appears to have been limited distribution of local dec orated earthen wares, metal (primarily iron) and beads, which were recovered from Yap in all periods (although beads have not been fo und in the fifteenth-sixteenth century occupation).These finds are associated with elite residences, and their apparently restricted regional distribution suggests that the elite used them as local prestige goods.Decorated earthenwares and iron were also recovered from the Unto site (pri marily from fifteenth and post-fifteenth century deposits), and smaller quantities of these materials were found at less than a third of the survey sites.There is evidence for the production of local prestige goods at Yap, with ironsmithing located close to elite residences.This parallels archaeolog ical findings at other centres, as well as descriptions in early accounts of the control of this craft specialization by chiefs.

Dumaguete's relations with other chiefdoms
External political and economic relations of the Dumaguete chiefdom with other late prehistoric societies in the region is another focus of the research.Although historical accounts describe various interactions among these societies -for example, exchange of foreign and local goods, food and raw materials; elite intermarriages; feasts and rituals; raiding and warfare -that appear to have been primarily controlled or directed by chiefs, there has been little archaeological investigation of these inter actions.Decorated earthenware assem blages from the Dumaguete-Bacong area and from 82 sites located on various nearby islands are being analyzed to investigate late prehistoric exchange between chief dams and the symbolism associated with the chiefly elites.There are several groups of decorated wares, each of which displays a high degree of stylistic similarity, and they are distributed across several islands.Pre vious researchers have suggested that this resulted from inter-island exchange from single production centres.Given the archaeological evidence for decorated earthenwares as local prestige items, their use in exchange between chiefdoms would not be unexpected.However, the results of preliminary technical analysis suggest that, in the case of Dumaguete, most of the dec orated earthenwares appear to have been made locally, whereas a few non-local wares have been found that suggest exchange relations with Tanjay, Manila and Siquijor Island (Figs 1 and 3).Thus, late 56 prehistoric chiefs do not appear to have used decorated earthenwares to any great extent in the exchange of prestige goods within the Philippine Archipelago.Instead, the results of stylistic and spatial analyses suggest that the distribution among chief dams of similarly decorated wares relates to their role in symbolizing chiefly alliances, which would have been crucial to maintain ing both access to foreign goods and political stability.

Future research directions
Thus far, the project has focused on the activities of one late prehistoric chiefdom in Dumaguete-Bacong.Many of the issues under investigation require further analy ses and fieldwork.For example, more detailed analysis of the survey data is cur rently being undertaken to investigate changes in sociopolitical hierarchies, which will also provide the context for under standing economic changes and their implications for political dynamics.Analy sis of the archaeological evidence from Magsuhot within a regional context will similarly extend our understanding of ear lier societies and their transformations.At the same time, the available material remains are being examined for evidence of the role of gender in craft production and systems of prestige.Ultimately, the results of this research, in conjunction with those of other archaeological projects, should be capable of providing interpretations of pre Hispanic Filipino societies that challenge the colonial images so deeply embedded in Western perceptions of the Philippines.

Fig ure 3
Fig ure 3 Negros and adjacent islands, showing the location of the Dumaguete Bacong archaeological project.

Figure 4
Figure 4 Th e Dumaguete-Bacong archae ological survey area and the location of excavation sites.

Notes 1 .
A possible exception is the Laguna cop per-plate inscription dated to AD 900; see A. Postma, "The Laguna copper-plate inscription: a valuable Philippine docu ment ", Bulletin of the In do-Pacifi c Pre history Association 11, 160-71, 1991.2. See K. Hutterer, "A balance of trade: the social nature of late pre-Hispanic Philip pines", First Annual Hart Collection Lec ture delivered in April 1985 at Northern Illinois University, DeKalb.3. See F. L. Jocano , The Philippines at Sp an ish contact (Manila: MCS Enterprises, 1975).4. See three PhD dissertations (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor): E. A. Bacus, Polit ical economy and interaction : late pre historic polities in the central Philippine Islands, 1995; L. Junker, Long-distance trade and the development of socio political complexity in Philippine chief dams of the fi rst millennium to mid second millennium AD, 1990; and M. Nishimura , Long-distance tra de and the development of complex societies in the prehistory of the central Philippines: the Cebu central settlement case, 1992. 5. See R. Mascunana, "The Bacong artifacts in the Silliman Anthropology Museum collection: a morphological analysis of displayed material culture ", in Artifacts fr om the Visayan communities: a study of extin ct and extant culture, R. V. Cadelina &J.G. Perez (eds), 1-200 (Dumaguete City: Silliman University, 1986).