Introduction
On March 10, 2020, COVID-19 was officially declared a critical threat to the Danish
society. Exactly 18 months after, on September 10, 2021, Denmark was the first country
in the European Union to declare that COVID-19 was no longer a critical threat to
society and to lift all COVID-19 restrictions (see Fig. 1, Panel A, for an illustration
of the course of the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark). Over the course of these 18 months,
we conducted four studies based on data from the COVID-19 Consequences Denmark Panel
Survey 2020 (CCDPS 2020), in which we found co-variation between the intensity of
the pandemic (confirmed COVID-19 cases, COVID-19-related deaths, and COVID-19-related
restrictions) and the level of psychological well-being among the adult Danish population.
Our results suggested a particularly pronounced negative effect on young adults compared
to older adults (Sønderskov et al., 2020a, b, 2021; Vistisen et al., 2021), which
resonates well with findings from other Danish and international studies conducted
in the same period (Fancourt et al., 2020; Kimhi et al., 2020; Mehrsafar et al., 2021;
Ramiz et al., 2021; Ruggieri et al., 2021; Savage et al., 2021; Thygesen et al., 2021;
Varga et al., 2021).
Fig. 1.
Panel A: Shows the timing of the five waves of the COVID-19 Consequences Denmark Panel
Survey 2020 (CCDPS 2020) as well as the number of confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Denmark,
the number of COVID-19-related deaths in Denmark, and the proportion of the Danish
population being fully vaccinated against COVID-19. Furthermore, the level of societal
restrictions/lockdowns in Denmark is illustrated using a colour schematic with yellow
representing mild restrictions and red representing more severe restrictions. Panel
B: Levels of psychological well-being (mean WHO-5 total scores with 95% CI) from the
Danish Mental Health and Well-Being Survey 2016 (DMHWBS 2016) and from the five CCDPS
2020 waves, stratified by age. Panel C: Changes in psychological well-being (mean
WHO-5 total scores with 95% CI) from the DMHWBS 2016 to the five individual CCDPS
2020 waves. Panel D: Change in psychological well-being (mean WHO-5 total scores with
95% CI) from wave four to wave five of the CCDPS 2020. Sources: CCDPS 2020, DMHWBS
2016, John Hopkins University (2021), and Statens Serum Institut (2021).
Evidence from the SARS outbreak in Taiwan in 2003 suggests that the negative psychological
impact of an epidemic may persist into the post-epidemic period (Hsieh et al., 2020).
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the degree of psychological well-being/distress
in the Danish population after having returned to close to pre-pandemic societal conditions
and to compare it against levels obtained over the preceding 18 months as well as
before the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods
All waves of the CCDPS 2020 were collected online by the survey agency Epinion (on
commission), using the same target sample (invitees sampled from Epinion’s respondent
pool). In the five CCDPS 2020 waves, measures of psychological well-being, that is
the five-item World Health Organization well-being index (WHO-5) (Topp et al., 2015),
and six questions on the severity of symptoms of depression/anxiety experienced over
the past two weeks (reported on a scale going from 0 (not present) to 10 (present
to an extreme degree)) were collected. Wave one was fielded from March 31 to April
6, 2020 (Sønderskov et al., 2020a), wave two from April 22 to April 30, 2020 (Sønderskov
et al., 2020b), wave three from November 20 to December 8, 2020 (Sønderskov et al.,
2021), and wave four from February 4 to February 21, 2021 (Vistisen et al., 2021).
The fifth wave of the CCDPS 2020 with emphasis on psychological well-being was fielded
from August 30 to September 15, 2021. The current study was based on respondents that
participated in all five of these waves. After weighting (applied in all analyses),
the sample is representative of the Danish population in terms of key demographic
variables (gender, age, education, region, and self-reported party choice at the 2019
Parliament election in Denmark). Finally, psychological well-being measured prior
to the pandemic was obtained through data from the Danish Mental Health and Well-being
Survey 2016 (DMHWBS2016) (see the Supplementary Material for a description of this
survey, which is independent of the CCDPS 2020). As the trajectories of psychological
well-being across the first four waves of the CCDPS 2020 are described in detail elsewhere
(Sønderskov et al., 2020a, b, 2021; Vistisen et al., 2021), our analyses focused primarily
on the development from wave four (fielded during the second spike of the COVID-19
pandemic in Denmark) to wave five, as well as a comparison between wave five and the
pre-pandemic state of the Danish population (from the DMHWBS 2016). Specifically,
we compared the mean WHO-5 total scores and the proportion of respondents with a WHO-5
total score <50 [indicative of depression (Topp et al., 2015)] at wave five with scores
from wave four (paired sample t-test), as well as with those measured in the DMHWBS
2016 (two-sample t-test). We also compared the individual WHO-5 item scores and the
level of reported symptoms of anxiety and depression (not available for the DMHWBS
2016) at wave five with those from wave four (paired sample t-test). Furthermore,
we investigated the correlation (Pearson’s) between changes in each of the six anxiety/depression
symptom levels and changes in the WHO-5 total scores from wave four to wave five.
All analyses were stratified by the age at wave one of the CCDPS 2020, using the following
strata: 18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, 55–64, 65–74, and 75+. P-values <0.05 were considered
statistically significant in all analyses.
Results
A total of 1195 respondents (47% women, weighted proportion) participated in all five
waves of the CCDPS 2020 (49% of the 2458 respondents in wave 1). The sample had a
mean age of 49.5 years (weighted mean). The age-stratified levels of psychological
well-being (the WHO-5 total score) at the five CCDPS 2020 waves as well as prior to
the pandemic (obtained from the DMHWBS 2016) are shown in Fig. 1, Panel B. Age-stratified
changes in psychological well-being from 2016 to the five CCDPS 2020 waves, as well
as from wave four to wave five of the CCDPS 2020, are shown in Fig. 1, Panel C and
D, respectively. These results show that psychological well-being has increased with
statistical significance from wave four to wave five and is generally at the same
level as in 2016. The only exception to this general tendency is those aged 35–44
years, who did not experience a change in psychological well-being from wave four
to wave five. Furthermore, their psychological well-being at wave five was statistically
significantly lower than the 2016 level in the same age group. The results of gender-stratified
analyses are similar to those described above (Supplementary Figures 1, 2 and 3, and
Supplementary Table 2).
The results of the remaining analyses can be summarised as follows: Only among the
35–44-year-olds was the proportion with WHO-5 scores <50 (indicative of depression)
significantly higher at wave five compared to the 2016 level (Supplementary Figure
4 and Supplementary Table 3). When comparing the proportions with WHO-5 scores <50
at wave four to wave five, statistically significant decreases were observed among
those aged 18–24, 25–34 and 55–64 years (Supplementary Figure 4 and Supplementary
Table 3). When assessing the development in psychological well-being at the individual
WHO-5 item-level, it becomes evident that the increase in the WHO-5 total score from
wave four to wave five was mainly driven by feeling more happy, more vigorous, more
rested, and more occupied with things of interest – with some substantial variation,
however, across the age groups (Supplementary Figure 5 and Table 4). With regard to
the symptoms of anxiety and depression, hopelessness decreased with statistical significance
across all age groups from wave four to wave five, while there were also statistically
significant decreases in depression (all age groups except from the 18–24-year olds),
anxiety (all age groups except from the 18–24 and 25–34-year-olds), anxiety (all age
groups except from the 18–24, 25–34 and 35–44-year-olds), and worry (only among those
aged 55–64, 65–74 and 75+ years) (Supplementary Figure 6 and Supplementary Table 5).
Furthermore, there was a negative correlation between changes in the severity of anxiety/depression
symptoms from wave four to wave five and changes in psychological well-being (Supplementary
Table 6). In other words, the decreases in anxiety/depression symptom severity observed
from wave four to five tended to be accompanied by increased psychological well-being.
Discussion
This is the fifth time we have surveyed the psychological state of Denmark during
the COVID-19 pandemic. The results are consistent with our prior reports from this
series of surveys in showing that there appears to be co-variation between the pandemic
pressure and psychological well-being (Sønderskov et al., 2020a, b, 2021; Vistisen
et al., 2021). Moreover, the results across the five survey waves are compatible with
variation in symptoms of anxiety and depression being a key driving force behind the
variation in psychological well-being. In wave five of the survey, however, the 35–44-year-olds
represent a notable exception to this general pattern. Specifically, while symptoms
of hopelessness and depression decreased in this group, their level of psychological
well-being remained unaltered compared to wave four and compared to pre-pandemic levels.
We can only speculate with regard to the reason for this finding, but will refrain
from doing so, as there are likely many other sources than symptoms of anxiety and
depression – unaccounted for in the present study – contributing to psychological
well-being.
As for the prior studies of the CCDPS waves, the main limitation of this study is
its observational design, which means that alternative explanations for the variation
in psychological well-being – such as changing seasons – cannot be ruled out. For
further discussion of this aspect, please see (Sønderskov et al., 2021).
In conclusion, in September 2021, when Denmark had returned to close to pre-pandemic
societal conditions, the psychological well-being of the Danish population also appears
to have returned to the pre-pandemic level – except, however, for the 35–44-year-olds.
With the degree of co-variation between the pandemic pressure and psychological well-being
observed across the CCDPS waves (Sønderskov et al., 2020a, b, 2021; Vistisen et al.,
2021) and elsewhere (Fancourt et al., 2020; Kimhi et al., 2020; Mehrsafar et al.,
2021; Ramiz et al., 2021; Ruggieri et al., 2021; Savage et al., 2021; Thygesen et
al., 2021; Varga et al., 2021), it is also a concern from a mental health perspective
that the COVID-19 pandemic – at the time of writing – continues to affect populations
across the globe.